• 专利附录
  • 专利说明
  • 权利要求
  • 类似技术
  • 同族专利
  • 引用文献
  • 法律状态
  • 优先权
    • 专利摘要:
    Direct osmosis control procedure. Procedure to treat water by nanofiltration or reverse osmosis with a direct osmosis system as pretreatment comprising a control system by which the difference in flow between the entrance and exit of the membrane on either side of the membrane is regulated by means of a system for adding a solution of an osmotic pressure lower or higher than the water to be treated. (Machine-translation by Google Translate, not legally binding)
    公开号:ES2619113A1
    申请号:ES201531881
    申请日:2015-12-22
    公开日:2017-06-23
    发明作者:Beatriz CORZO GARCÍA；Jorge MALFEITO SÁNCHEZ；Mª Del Mar MICO RECHE；Adolfo MOLINA FERNANDEZ；Teresa DE LA TORRE GARCÍA
    申请人:Acciona Agua SA；
    IPC主号:
    专利说明:

    The present invention relates to a method of dosing a solutionextractor (OS) to maintain the flow of nanofiltered water produced by adirect osmosis (FO) and nanofiltration (NF) or reverse osmosis (RO) systemby the difference in the measurement of the OS flow or the water flow ofpower to the input and output of the FO system or by the difference in
    10 measurement of the feedwater flow rate at the inlet and outlet of the FO system.
    STATE OF THE TECHNIQUE
    In a water production plant it is vital to provide a flow of
    15 constant water to the end user. Thus, the permeate flow rate, that is, the product water flow rate, is the variable to be set in a process of a combined system of direct osmosis and nanofiltration or reverse osmosis.
    For this, the control system consists of adding more or less extracting solution
    20 on the other side of the membrane to increase or decrease the osmotic pressure difference. To date, the control systems described for FO systems are based on the determination of the electrical conductivity (mS / cm) of the OS (see, for example, Alturki et al. Bioresource Technology 2012, 113, 201-206; Chen et al. nd. Eng. Chem. Res., 2014, 53, 16170-16175; and Zhang et al. Journal of Membrane
    25 Science 2012, 403-404, 8-14). Thus, when dilution with the permeate the conductivity falls below a specific value, the OS dosage is activated to restore the conductivity. However, there is no direct relationship between the electrical conductivity of the OS (mS / cm) and the permeate flow rate obtained (m3 / s) since the permeate flow rate obtained depends on the conductivity of the water at
    30 purify, but also other factors such as the layer of membrane dirt, the flow rate through the membrane (Akther et al. Chemical Engineering Journal 2015, 281, 502-522) and the composition of the OS that can Change over time. Therefore, the conductivity-based control does not allow for a constant product water flow.
    Therefore, it would be desirable to have a direct osmosis procedure that allows the control of the flow obtained from nanofiltradalosmotized water and, in addition, that the steps of reverse nanofiltration / osmosis and direct osmosis of said procedure are stable by serial regulation.
    DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION
    In a first aspect, the present invention relates to a filtration process
    10 of water in a forced osmosis system comprising a dosing step of an extracting solution characterized by measuring the flow rate of the extracting solution or the flow rate of feed water at the entrance and exit of the system, where: i) when the difference between the flow rate of the extracting solution or the water of
    The feed at the entrance and exit of the system is less than 1%. And 10% of the flow rate, the concentrated extracting solution is dosed; or ii) when the difference between the flow rate of the extracting solution or the feedwater at the inlet and outlet of the system is greater than between 1% and 10% of the flow rate, the dosage of diluted extracting solution occurs,
    20 characterized in that the flow rate referred to in steps (i) and (ii) is between 2 and 15 L! h per square meter of membrane surface.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, wherein the extracting solution is selected from a high molecular weight polymer, fertilizers, inorganic salts and organic salts.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, wherein the extracting solution is selected from sodium polyacrylate, magnesium sulfate, calcium disodium EDTA, magnesium disodium EDTA, calcium nitrate,
    30 magnesium nitrate, calcium acetate and magnesium acetate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium pyrophosphate, potassium formate, polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, dextran.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, wherein the concentrated extracting solution has a concentration between 10 gIl and 500 gil.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, wherein the diluted extractor solution has a concentration between 5 gIl and 400 gIl.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the procedure defined above,where the forced osmosis system comprises a filtration membraneselected from thin film composite (Thin Film Composite or TFC) or triacetateof cellulose (eTA).
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, where the filtration membrane is configured as hollow fiber, flat plate or spiral.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, wherein the membrane is TFC configured as a flat plate.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the procedure defined above,where:The extracting solution is selected from a high molecular weight polymer,
    20 fertilizers, inorganic salts and organic salts; and the concentrated extracting solution has a concentration between 10 gIl and 500 gIl.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, where:
    The extraction solution is selected from a high molecular weight polymer, fertilizers, inorganic salts and organic salts; and the diluted extracting solution has a concentration between 5 gIl and 400 gIl.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the procedure defined above,
    30 where: the extracting solution is selected from a high molecular weight polymer, fertilizers, inorganic salts and organic salts; the concentrated extracting solution has a concentration between 10 gIl and 500 gIl; Y
    The diluted extraction solution has a concentration between 5 gIl and 400 gIl.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the procedure defined above,where:The extraction solution is selected from sodium polyacrylate, magnesium sulfate,Disodium calcium EDTA, magnesium disodium EDTA, calcium nitrate, nitrate
    5 mg, calcium acetate and magnesium acetate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium pyrophosphate, potassium formate, polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, dextran; and the concentrated extracting solution has a concentration between 10 gIl and 500 gIl.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, wherein: the extracting solution is selected from sodium polyacrylate, magnesium sulfate, calcium disodium EDTA, magnesium disodium EDTA, calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, calcium acetate and magnesium acetate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride,
    15 magnesium chloride, sodium pyrophosphate, potassium formate, polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, dextran; and the diluted extracting solution has a concentration of between 5 g / I and 400 g / 1.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the procedure defined above,
    20 where: the extracting solution is selected from sodium polyacrylate, magnesium sulfate, calcium disodium EDTA, magnesium disodium EDTA, calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, calcium acetate and magnesium acetate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride , sodium pyrophosphate, potassium formate, polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol,
    25 polyvinyl alcohol, dextran; the concentrated extracting solution has a concentration between 10 gIl and 500 gIl; And the diluted extracting solution has a concentration between 5 gIl and 400 gIl.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, wherein: the extracting solution is selected from a high molecular weight polymer, fertilizers, inorganic salts and organic salts; and the forced osmosis system comprises a selected filtration membrane
    35 of thin layer composite (TFC) or Cellulose Triacetate (CTA), and preferably where the membrane is TFC and is configured as a flat plate.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the procedure defined above,where:The extracting solution is selected from a high molecular weight polymer,
    5 fertilizers, inorganic salts and organic salts; and the forced osmosis system comprises a filtration membrane selected from thin layer composite (TFC) or Cellulose Triacetate (CTA), preferably where the filtration membrane is configured as hollow fiber, flat or spiral plate, and more preferably where the membrane is TFC and is configured as
    10 flat plate.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the procedure defined above,where:The extraction solution is selected from sodium polyacrylate, magnesium sulfate,
    15 Disodium calcium EDTA, magnesium disodium EDTA, calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, calcium acetate and magnesium acetate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium pyrophosphate, potassium formate, polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, dextran ; and the forced osmosis system comprises a selected filtration membrane
    20 of thin layer composite (TFC) or Cellulose Triacetate (CTA), preferably where the filtration membrane is configured as hollow fiber, flat or spiral plate, and more preferably where the membrane is TFC and is configured as a flat plate.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the process defined above, wherein: the extracting solution is selected from a high molecular weight polymer, fertilizers, inorganic salts and organic salts; where the concentrated extracting solution has a concentration of between 10 gIl Y
    30,500 gil;
    the diluted extracting solution has a concentration between 5 g and 400 gIl; And the forced osmosis system comprises a filtration membrane selected from thin layer composite (TFC) or Cellulose Triacetate (CTA), preferably where the filtration membrane is configured as hollow fiber, flat plate or
    35 spiral, and more preferably where the membrane is TFC and is configured as a flat plate.
    In another embodiment, the invention relates to the procedure defined above,where:The extraction solution is selected from sodium polyacrylate, magnesium sulfate,
    5 Disodium calcium EDTA, magnesium disodium EDTA, calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, calcium acetate and magnesium acetate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium pyrophosphate, potassium formate, polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, dextran ; where the concentrated extracting solution has a concentration of between 10 gIl Y
    10,500 gil;
    the diluted extracting solution has a concentration between 5 gIl and 400 gIl; And the forced osmosis system comprises a filtration membrane selected from thin layer composite (TFC) or Cellulose Triacetate (ClA), preferably where the filtration membrane is configured as hollow fiber, flat plate or
    15 spiral, and more preferably where the membrane is TFC and is configured as a flat plate.
    Throughout the present invention the term "water filtration" refers to nanofiltration and direct osmosis, where both are separation processes that use semipermeable membranes. Semi permeable membrane is called that structure that allows the passage of some compounds and not others, depending on the characteristics of the compound such as size, or load. Nanofiltration and reverse osmosis are similar techniques that are distinguished by the type of membrane they use. The nanofiltration membranes have an equivalent pore size of
    25 0.001 -0,0001 microns, while the reverse osmosis would have a smaller equivalent pore size «0.0001 ... 1m).
    "Flat plate membranes" refers to flat membrane sheets supported on support plates and are used in plate and frame modules. These modules will have
    30 two inputs (one for the feed) and one for the draw solution and two outputs, distributed at different points on the board depending on the type of flow desired.
    "Hollow fiber membranes" refers to a group of hollow tubes of small diameter (0.6 to 2 mm) that are constructed with a membrane, where water can flow either from inside to outside or from outside to inside.
    "Spiral membranes" refer to two layers of membrane, located in a permeate collecting fabric. This membrane sheath wraps a permeate drain located in the central position.
    Thus, the differences between these three configurations lie in how it isarranged the membrane:-the flat plate membranes are flat membrane sheets, folios type;-the spiral membranes are spirally wound; Y
    10 -the hollow fiber membranes are arranged in hollow tubes.
    The terms "feed water" or feed water "or" feed water "refer to the current of water to be treated. It may be seawater, brackish water, wastewater, etc., that is, any water that is desired desalinate or concentrate.
    The terms "extracting solution" or "draw solution" or "OS" refer to a fluid that has a high dissolved solute concentration and, therefore, an osmotic pressure greater than the current called feed water or supply water. Due to the difference in osmotic pressures between both streams, if they are brought into contact with a semipermeable membrane, the concentration with higher osmotic pressure tends to be diluted in order to equalize pressures, therefore, this stream draws the fluid to itself. The "concentrated extracting solution" is one that has not yet been contacted through the semipermeable membrane with the feed water, while the "diluted extracting solution" has already been put into
    25 contact with the feedwater and has extracted part of that water to dilute itself. Examples of DS include among others: - "high molecular weight polymers": the polymers are macromolecules formed by the union of smaller molecules called monomers. They are generally high molecular weight organic molecules. Preferred molecules must have a
    30 molecular weight of cut of 2-25 KDa. Molecules with higher molecular weight should not be considered due to their high viscosity. Examples of polymers are: sodium polyacrylate, polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol, dextran; - "Fertilizers": is a type of substance which contains nutrients, in healthy chemical forms and assimilable by the roots of plants, to maintain or
    35 increase the content of these elements in the soil so that the plant absorbs them. Examples of fertilizer: calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, calcium EDTA,
    Magnesium EDTA, magnesium sulfate, sodium pyrophosphate;
    - "organic salts": it is applied to the salt formed by cations (positively charged ions)
    bound to anions (negatively charged ions) through an ionic bond, where the
    Anion is mainly composed of carbon compounds, with C-C and C-H bonds, examples being potassium formate, calcium EDTA, magnesium EDTA, calcium acetate, magnesium acetate; and - "inorganic salts": it is applied to the salt formed by cations (positively charged ions) attached to anions (negatively charged ions) through an ionic bond, where
    10 nowhere contains carbon compounds with e-e and e-H bonds. Examples are magnesium sulfate, calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride.
    As mentioned above, thanks to the process of the invention,
    15 can supply a constant flow of water (product water, permeate flow). In the system the product water flow is the variable that remains fixed. To do this, new or diluted extracting solution is added to one side of the direct osmosis membrane to raise or lower the osmotic pressure difference in the system and thereby modify the product water flow. Once the water flow
    20 The product measured by the difference between the Fa inlet and outlet flowmeters is within the desired range, new or diluted extracting solution is stopped dosing.
    On the other hand, the process of the invention allows the osmosis process and NF / RO
    25 are stable, that is, the permeate of the NF / RO is matched with the difference in flow rates between the input and the output of the FO so that both processes work in a synchronized manner. These two processes work in series to prevent the NF / RO from stopping due to lack of water produced by the Fa or, conversely, that the Fa stops and does not produce more water. If not, there will come a time when either the NF / RO does not
    30 will have food and will stop, since it depends on the water produced by the FO, or vice versa, a time when the FO produces more water than the NF / RO.
    In addition, the process of the invention allows the saving of product water from the system since, when the flow of product water through the Fa increases, instead of adding product water to decrease the osmotic pressure difference and decrease the flow of water that passes through the membrane, which is done in the process of the invention
    it is to add diluted extracting solution getting the concentration of the extracting solution to decrease. This saves product water.
    Throughout the description and claims the word "comprises" and its
    5 variants are not intended to exclude other technical characteristics, additives, components orSteps. For experts in the field, other objects, advantages and characteristics of theinvention will come off in part from the description and in part from the practice ofinvention. The following examples and figures are provided by way of illustration, andThey are not intended to be limiting of the present invention.
    BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES
    FIG. 1 Shows the scheme of the process of direct osmosis and nanofiltration. FO: Direct osmosis membranes of Porifera Company. It is configured through 2 racks of 15 6 elements each. Each element has 7 m2, therefore, the total area of FO membranes is 84 m 2. NF: NF membranes from Dow Chemical Company. 2 pressure containers with 4 NF elements of the 4x40 "measures are used in series or in parallel. Each membrane has 7.6 m2 of surface, therefore, 60.8 m2. T1: is the tank that contains the OS concentrated where there is an agitator to keep the mixture uniform 20. T2: is the tank where the diluted OS is stored 1: DS, flow rate of 2,000Llh and pressure of 0.7 bar 2: Diluted DS, flow rate of 2,200Llh and 0.2 bar pressure 3: product water, 200Llh flow rate and 0.2 bar pressure 4: feedwater (EOAR effluent), 3,000Llh flow rate and 0.9 bar pressure 5: concentrated , flow of 2,800 Llh and pressure of 0.5 bar 6: diluted OS, flow of 2,200 25 Llh and pressure of 10 bar 7: concentrated OS (perhaps less concentrated than 1 if 3 contains a large amount of DS) 8: Diluted OS, flow on demand and pressure of 0.2 bar.
    9: New OS, flow on demand (range 0.6 to 4Uh depending on the type of DS) and 0.2 bar pressure.
    30 EXAMPLES
    The invention will now be illustrated by tests carried out by the inventors that demonstrate the effectiveness of the product of the invention.
    35 During the global process, the water flow produced by direct osmosis is kept constant by adding the concentrated extractor solution with a pump
    dosing unit in case the flow rate decreases, and adding diluted DS in case the flow rate increases. The nanofiltered water flow will be equal to the flow produced by direct osmosis to maintain the stability of the system.
    The study corresponding to the invention was carried out in an automatic pilot plant that allows the operation and washing sequence to be carried out and the operating conditions of the system formed by the FO / NF technology to be adjusted. The FO membranes used are from Porifera. NF membranes were supplied by Dow Chemical.
    10 Example 1: Input flows in the Fa membrane of water to be treated for 3,000 Llh and flow rates of 2,000Llh of DS were studied. The inlet water was treated wastewater from a membrane bioreachlor with a variable quality according to the
    Seasonality, with a conductivity of around 4-6 mS / cm and a boron concentration of 0.9-1, 3 ppm. The permeate flow rate was adjusted to 200 L / h. A DS formed by sodium polyacrylate was used. The NF membranes used in this example were characterized by having high flow. When a decrease in FO membrane flow was observed (which was observed based on a decrease in the
    20 difference in flow rates between the entrance and the exit of the membrane), probably due to fouling in the Fa membrane, DS was dosed in 9 to increase the concentration of DS at the entrance of the Fa membrane (1) to increase the difference in osmotic pressure between one side and another of the membrane and thus restore the desired flow. During the operation, the concentration of DS was increasing
    25 from 100 gIL to 200 gI L. A total of 6,900 kg / year of commercial DS was dosed on average and it was not necessary to dose diluted DS because the production flow was at all times below the desired flow. The NF membrane responded to the DS concentration difference by raising the pump pressure between 7-16 bar to give a constant permeate flow rate equal to the water flow rate.
    30 produced by FO. The water obtained showed a high quality, with 0.5 mSlcm of conductivity and 0.4 ppm of boron.
    Example 2:Entrance flows in the Fa membrane of water to treat 3,000 were studied
    35 Llh And flows of 2,000Llh of DS. The inlet water was treated wastewater from a membrane bioreactor with a variable quality according to the
    seasonality, with a conductivity of about 4-6 mS / cm and boron of 0.9-1, 3 ppm. The permeate flow rate was adjusted to 200 L / h. An OS formed by magnesium sulfate was used. NF membranes were characterized by having high flow. No fouling was observed in the membrane or significant variations in the quality of the inlet water or in the temperature, therefore, the concentration of the OS at the entrance of the FO membrane was maintained around 35 gIL. A total of 6,300 kg / year of commercial OS was dosed on average and it was not necessary to dose diluted OS because the production flow was always below the desired flow rate. The NF membrane responded to the difference in OS concentration
    10 raising the pump pressure by about 10 bar to give a constant permeate flow rate equal to the water flow produced by the FO. The water obtained showed adequate quality, with a conductivity of 2 mS / cm and 0.4 ppm of boron.
    Example 3:
    15 Inlet FO flow rates of water to be treated at 3,000 L / h and 2,000 L / h OS flow rates were studied. The inlet water was treated wastewater from a membrane bioreactor with a variable quality according to seasonality, with a conductivity of about 4-6 mS / cm and boron of 0.9-1, 3 ppm. A permeate flow rate of 200 L / h was adjusted. An OS formed by
    20 magnesium sulfate. The NF membranes used were characterized in this case by showing a high rejection. No fouling was observed in the membrane or significant variations in the quality of the inlet water or in the temperature, whereby the concentration of the OS at the entrance of the FO membrane was maintained around 35 gIL. Approximately 3,200 kg / year of OS were dosed
    25 commercial and it was not necessary to dose diluted OS because the production flow was at all times below the desired flow. The NF membrane responded to the difference in OS concentration by raising the pump pressure around 11.5 bar to give a constant permeate flow rate equal to the water flow produced by the FO. The water obtained showed high quality, with a
    30 conductivity of 0.5 mS / cm and 0.4 ppm of boron.
    权利要求:
    Claims (6)
    [1]
    1. Water filtration method in a forced osmosis system comprising a dosing step of an extractor solution characterized by measuring the flow rate of the extracting solution or the feedwater flow rate
    at the entrance and exit of the system, where: i) when the difference between the flow rate of the extracting solution or the feed water at the entrance and exit of the system is less than 1% AND 10% of the flow is Produces the dosage of extracting solution
    10 concentrated; or ii) when the difference between the flow rate of the extracting solution or the feedwater at the inlet and outlet of the system is greater than between 1% and 10% of the flow rate, the dosage of diluted extracting solution occurs,
    15 characterized in that the flow rate referred to in stages (i) and (ii) is between 2 and 15 LI h per square meter of membrane surface.
    [2]
    2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the extracting solution is
    Select from a high molecular weight polymer, fertilizers, inorganic salts and 20 organic salts.
    [3]
    3. The process according to claim 2, wherein the extracting solution is selected from sodium polyacrylate, magnesium sulfate, calcium disodium EDTA, magnesium disodium EDTA, calcium nitrate, magnesium nitrate, acetate
    25 calcium and magnesium acetate, sodium chloride, calcium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium pyrophosphate, potassium formate, polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol, polyvinyl alcohol and dextran.
    [4]
    4. The process according to any one of claims 1 to 3, wherein the concentrated extracting solution has a concentration of between 10 gIl and 500 gIl.
    [5]
    5. The process according to any of claims 1 to 3, wherein the diluted extracting solution has a concentration between 5 g and 400 gi l.
    The method according to any one of claims 1 to 5, wherein the forced osmosis system comprises a filtration membrane selected from thin layer composite (TFC) or cellulose triacetate (CTA).
    [7]
    7. The method according to claim 6, wherein the filtration membrane is configured as hollow fiber, flat or spiral plate.
    The method according to any of claims 6 or 7, wherein the membrane is TFC configured as a flat plate.
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    同族专利:
    公开号 | 公开日
    ES2619113B1|2018-05-08|
    MA44157A|2018-10-31|
    WO2017109260A1|2017-06-29|
    EP3395430A1|2018-10-31|
    引用文献:
    公开号 | 申请日 | 公开日 | 申请人 | 专利标题
    WO2006047577A1|2004-10-25|2006-05-04|Cascade Designs, Inc.|Forward osmosis utilizing a controllable osmotic agent|
    US20100155329A1|2008-12-18|2010-06-24|Quantumsphere, Inc.|Systems and methods for forward osmosis fluid purification|
    WO2012102677A1|2011-01-24|2012-08-02|Nano-Mem Pte. Ltd.|Method and apparatus for recovering water from a source water|
    US20140116943A1|2011-07-01|2014-05-01|Hitachi, Ltd.|Water Purification System and Method|
    AU2014228787B2|2013-03-15|2018-05-10|Porifera, Inc.|Advancements in osmotically driven membrane systems including multi-stage purification|
    JP6269241B2|2014-03-27|2018-01-31|東洋紡株式会社|Forward osmosis processing system|
    WO2016094835A1|2014-12-12|2016-06-16|Artesion, Inc.|A membrane and gas recycling system for forward osmosis water treatment systems using switchable polar solvents|
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    ES201531881A|ES2619113B1|2015-12-22|2015-12-22|PROCEDURE FOR CONTROL OF COMBINED SYSTEM OF DIRECT OSMOSIS AND REVERSE NANOFILTRATION OR OSMOSIS|ES201531881A| ES2619113B1|2015-12-22|2015-12-22|PROCEDURE FOR CONTROL OF COMBINED SYSTEM OF DIRECT OSMOSIS AND REVERSE NANOFILTRATION OR OSMOSIS|
    MA044157A| MA44157A|2015-12-22|2016-12-22|CONTROL PROCESS FOR A COMBINED DIRECT OSMOSIS AND NANOFILTRATION OR REVERSE OSMOSIS SYSTEM|
    PCT/ES2016/070925| WO2017109260A1|2015-12-22|2016-12-22|Method for controlling a combined system of forward osmosis and nanofiltration or reverse osmosis|
    EP16838025.1A| EP3395430A1|2015-12-22|2016-12-22|Method for controlling a combined system of forward osmosis and nanofiltration or reverse osmosis|
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